The remarkable longevity of submarine plumes: Implications for the hydrothermal input of iron to the deep-ocean

The longevity of submarine plumes generated at sea-floor hydrothermal systems constrains the hydrothermal input of chemical species into the deep-ocean. Decades of observations of episodic ``event plumes{''} suggest that a key process governing the dynamics of an hydrothermal cloud spreading out laterally from a buoyant rising plume is the production of internal layering. Here, we use analog experiments on turbulent, hot particle-laden plumes and clouds to show that this layering occurs where particle diffusive convection driven by the differential diffusion of heat and small mineral precipitates gives rise to a large scale double diffusive instability. Where hydrothermal clouds are enriched in fine minerals, this ``particle diffusive convection{''} can extend the longevity of an event plume to 2 yr after its emplacement. The very long residence time imposed by diffusive convective effects enables complete dissolution of fine sulfide and sulfate minerals. We develop a new theoretical model that includes both sedimentation and dissolution processes to quantify the potential amount of iron produced by the dissolution of iron-sulfide minerals settling through the cloud by diffusive convection. A key prediction is that the concentration of dissolved iron in hydrothermal clouds can reach up to 19 +/- 3 nM, which represents about 5% of the global hydrothermal discharge. If these results are representative of all hydrothermal vent fields, hydrothermal systems could provide 75% of the global budget of dissolved iron in the deep-ocean. Regionally, this flux is expected to scale in magnitude with mid-ocean ridge heat flow, consistent with observations and global ocean models. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.